Technological Advancements Within Neuroscience

Author: Natasha Rocca, Yr 12

Optogenetics

The brain is made up of billions of neurons communicating with electricity which can control behaviour, thoughts, and emotions. Complications could cause such problems as brain disorders.  Optogenetics is a method that includes putting molecules that convert light into electricity within neurons. Exposing neurons to light, turning light into electricity, then being able to turn neurons ‘on or off’. The aim of this is to be able to control electrical activity within the brain. Photosynthetic/photosensory molecules within bacteria and funguses can convert light into electricity. By taking such molecules and the use of gene therapy we can put them into specific neurons that need to be controlled. By being able to switch on or off a group of cells, it may help to work out how it contributes to behaviour/thoughts and diseases, etc. With the ability to be able to target specific circuits of cells, it can help to develop drugs that for example target a specific circuit that is responsible for certain brain disorders or illnesses. With the use of light to stimulate a certain group of cells, it is more specific than using electricity to target a group of cells. Meaning using light can help to target specific diseases. Optogenetics has not been used on any human patients yet as gene therapy is required to input photosynthetic/photosensory molecules into neurons. In places such as the USA, there are no FDA approved gene therapies. It is unknown that if by accessing such photosensory molecules from bacteria or algae if the body would the body see them as foreign molecules and be attacked by the immune system. New technologies are needed in the future to help scientists discover and earn a deeper understanding of brain disorders and correcting problems between neurons.  

Single-cell RNA sequencing

A technique that allows scientists to start with cells/tissues and examine the expressed genes. With the use of next-generation sequencing, scientists can then learn about changes in gene expression and identify specific splicing events in genes. Single-cell RNA sequencing allows scientists to reveal the presence and quantity of RNA in a biological sample at any given moment as well as to look at the changes in gene expression over time. All previous methods of studying genes such as the qPCR and microarrays required prior knowledge of the gene or mRNA in order to be used, making it impossible to study specific genes. Whereas the new single-cell RNA sequencing, despite the cost, makes it possible to sequence new transcriptomes without prior data.  Gathering data from one cell with the newest technology can take up to only twenty to thirty minutes which when dealing with patients with awful illnesses such as brain cancer is important as the quicker doctors and the patients know, whether there is a critical illness, the faster they can help treat them.

Organoids

A new research tool, organoids are small structures derived from stem cells that organise themselves into structures that are extremely similar to aspects of a real human body in real life. With this comes the ability to determine different brain illnesses such as tumours in the brain etc. Compared to traditional 2d cultures, organoids can mimic more natural physiological processes (stem-cell differentiation, cellular movements, and cell-cell interaction).  Organoids can undergo extensive expansion, can maintain genomic stability, making biobanking and high-throughput screening possible. Compared to animal models’ organoids reduce experimental complexity, are amenable to live imaging techniques and in some cases can provide a more accurate model of human development and disease. Organoids combined with other technologies, such as testing gene and cell therapies by transplanting organoids in animals, are further applications in developments. Within neuroscience, this is important as it allows scientists to work closer to gene therapies which allow for such methods as optogenetics. However just as all other discoveries there come limitations of using organoids such as limited standardisation of growth methods, limitations in the physiological accuracy of the tissue architecture, lack of vascular and neural input in the resulting organoids, and the absence of increased interstitial pressure characteristic of tumours in vivo.